Author: Fan Jiao (焦凡)
Editors: Michelle X. Li
Between 1943 and 1947, the Chinese Government established Annual Qualifying Examinations for studying abroad to promote the country’s modernization after WWII. Thousands of students came to the US between 1947 and 1949. In 1949, some of them returned to China after their graduate studies. In 1953, due to the Korean war, the US government prohibited those STEM students from returning to China, and for the first time in US history, some of these students were allowed to gain permanent resident status in the US. Soon the students started mobilizing to fight for their rightful cause by sending petitions to the Congress, executive branch, and mainstream media. They also got the backing of the new Chinese government. In 1955 US and China negotiated in Geneva regarding the US airmen who were held in China during the Korean War and the Chinese students residing in the US who wanted to go back to China. Between 1949 and January 1957, there were around 1,200 Chinese students returned to China.
More than 4,000 of them remained in the States were able to establish their own careers and professions with peace of mind and made considerable contributions to the U.S.; more than a thousand people who returned home also made great contributions to the construction of China. In the present second decade of the twenty-first century, they have all left this world, whether they stayed or returned, they had not “sailed two boats”, and their unswerving patriotic spirit will live forever with the motherland or the fatherland.
Between 1943 and 1947, the Chinese Government established Annual Qualifying Examinations for studying abroad in order to promote the country’s modernization after WWII. Thousands of students came to the US between 1947 and 1949. In 1949, some of them returned to China after their graduate studies. In 1953, due to the Korean war, the US government prohibited those STEM students from returning to China, and for the first time in US history, some of these students were allowed to gain permanent resident status in the US. Soon the students started mobilizing to fight for their rightful cause by sending petitions to the Congress, executive branch, and mainstream media. They also got the backing of the new Chinese government. In 1955 US and China held negotiations in Geneva regarding the US airmen who were held in China during the Korean War and the Chinese students residing in the US who wanted to go back to China. Between 1949 and January 1957, there were around 1,200 Chinese students returned to China.
Now most of them have fulfilled their dream of building China and left this world, but their unwavering patriotism will live forever with their motherland.
A Chat with Four Tsinghua Friends in Chicago
One weekend day of early March of 1953, Prof. Ti Li Loo（陆迪利） of Univ. of Maryland，Prof. Ju-Chin Chu（朱汝瑾）of Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute flew to Chicago to meet two of their friends from Tsinghua University aka National Southwest Associated University/国立西南联合大学, Dr. He Bin Lin（何炳林），and Dr. JS Chiao （焦瑞身）, and their families.
Impacted by the anti-Japanese sentiment in WWII, China’s study abroad program was temporarily halted. With the outbreak of the Pacific War and the warming relationship between China and the United States, the National Government began to put the training of post-war construction personnel on the agenda.
Loo was born into a family of Changsha government officials, Chu, from a scholar family of Jiangsu, and He and Chiao, the first generation of college students from peasant families in Guangdong and Hebei, respectively.
The four were similar in age, Loo being the oldest, He, Chiao, Chu youngest, and the three were major in Organic Chemistry, Chu, Chemical Engineering. They often hung out together in college, and they were all teaching assistants at Tsinghua University after graduation.
In 1946, they passed the national qualification examination；He and Chiao came to the United States for graduate school, while Loo and Chu went to England.
In 1952, Loo and Chu learned that both He and Chiao wanted to return to China, and because they had many reservations about the Chinese Communist Party, they sent several letters to He/Chiao, urging them to reconsider.
In the end, they couldn’t wait any longer. So, the two flew to Chicago for a meeting. At that time, He was teaching at Indiana University; Chiao was working at a R&D Lab in Iowa, and the two families drove to meet old friends.
Because Loo strongly opposed to the Chinese Communist Party, he feared that his arguments would not convince the two friends, so he hoped that Chu, who grew up in a family of scholars, would help persuade them to stay.
But there was no result by the end of the evening; Loo’s last words to Chiao were “You’re such a nerd and knows nothing about China.” That night, as the two left Chicago, they hugged the two friends who were determined to return goodbye. It was not expected that they would not see each other again until about thirty years later, in the mid-eighties.
Prof. Ti Li Loo became a world-renowned cancer chemotherapy specialist, in 1980, he was awarded Ashbel Smith Professor of M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, and trained some modern oncology chemotherapy specialists from China in the mid-1980s/90s. He later became a research professor at George Washington University, where he retired.
In the early 1980s, he sponsored Chiao’s younger son to go to the Middle West to study; He said at the Houston airport, “I will not allow you to return to China after you finish your studies.”
Despite the torments of those dark years, He and Chiao were able to work hard for their beloved motherland, not only in basic research, pharmaceuticals, but also in cultivating many relevant talents. He had served as a professor at Nankai University, the director of the Department of Chemistry, the director of the Polymer Research Institute of Nankai University, and a deputy to the Third and Fifth National People’s Congress. Chiao was a research director at the Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. He was the Chairman of the Chinese Society of Microbiology and was elected as an honorary member of the American Society of Microbiology.
One summer day in the mid-nineties, Chiao’s eldest son drove his father to see Chu. The host was pleased to welcome the small baby he saw in Chicago many years ago, now a postdoctoral student. He showed the Physics Ph.D. thesis of his son to the postdoctoral, and jokingly said the father, “Our kids are now all lab rats.”
Boom of Study Abroad after WWII
Impacted by the anti-Japanese sentiment in WWII, China’s study abroad program was temporarily halted. With the outbreak of the Pacific War and the warming relationship between China and the United States, the National Government began to put the training of post-war construction personnel on the agenda.
In March 1943, President Chiang Kai-shek published “The Destiny of China”, which stated that post-war construction “needs to be made urgently”.1 On April 28, the president instructed the Ministry of Education and other departments of the National Government to estimate the number of high and low-level personnel in various departments of science and engineering in accordance with the ten-year plan of the comprehensive new study abroad program.
Later in 1943, the Ministry of Education of the National Government formulated a Five-Year Study Abroad Education Plan, the outline of the 1943 Plan for Sending Publicly and Privately Funded Students to study in the United States and the United Kingdom. The Ministry of Commerce published the Measures for the Selection of Industrial and Mining Interns to train abroad, and the Ministry of Transportation developed similar measures for Transportation interns.
In December 1943, the Ministry of Education held the first examination for public-funded study abroad, which admitted 327 students who went to the United States in the fall of 1944. In July 1944, the second examinations for both private and public funded study abroad were held simultaneously, admitting a total of 1900 students. In December of that year, the Ministry of Education held the American Graduate Student Scholarship Examination and admitted 209 students.
In July 1946, the Ministry of Education set up examination sites in Nanjing, Shanghai, Chongqing, and Northern China, and held a public-funded examination for study abroad in the same year.
During this period, a total of 1,900 students were admitted and financially supported by public funds of whom more than 1,000 had gone to the United States by October 1947. 3,4
At the same time, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) proposed a new peace deal and agreed on a path of peaceful nation-building with the National Government led by President Chiang.5 Meanwhile, CCP planned to form a post-war coalition government, and secretly selected and funded some underground party members to study abroad after passing the examination organized by the National Government.5
The changes in US and China policies towards Chinese students in the late 1940s
In 1949, the CCP realized that they were in urgent need of talents in science and technology for their post-war construction. That was the right time when the study abroad students from the early 1940s were completing their study in the United States. The CCP Central Committee decided to make every effort to convince them to return home and participate in the building of a new China.
In the summer of 1949, the Southern Bureau of the CCP recalled Xu Ming, a member of the CCP who was studying in the United States, to report to Zhou Enlai about the status of Chinese students in the United States. “Your most important task is to convince Chinese intellectuals in the United States, especially senior technical experts, to come back and build a new China,” Zhou said. On December 6, 1949, the Committee on Culture and Education of the Council of State established a Committee for the Repatriation of International Students and set up guest houses for returning students in Shanghai, Guangzhou, Wuhan, Shenyang, and other places.
On December 18, Premier Zhou, on behalf of the CCP and the Central People’s Government, solemnly invited overseas students to return home to participate in the construction of a new China through broadcasts from the Beijing People’s Radio Station.
On the other side of Pacific Ocean, while China’s civil war affected the financial situation of Chinese students studying in the United States, the US government provided some financial support to them, including the cost of returning home. In June 1950, the US Congress passed the China Regional Assistance Act of 1950, allowing the government to allocate $2.6 – 6 million for relief work for Chinese students and scholars. The China Aid Program continued until 1955 and eased temporary economic difficulties for many Chinese students and scholars. In addition, the US government also allowed Chinese students to work in the United States during and after their studies.
China Area Aid Act of 1950 by the U.S.
Extends to June 30, 1951, the permission granted the President by a 1949 statute to draw upon an unused fund previously appropriated for aid to China. This fund was estimated to total from $94,000,000 to $100,000,000.
Stipulates the following general distribution of any monies drawn from this fund: $40 million for non-Communist forces in China and Formosa; $8 million “for relief on humanitarian grounds through the American Red Cross or other voluntary relief agencies in any place in China suffering from the effects of natural calamity”, notably famine; and $6 million for the relief of Chinese students stranded in the U. S. by the deposition of their Nationalist government. 3
List of some of the Returned Students of 1949-1951
From 1949 to 1951, many Chinese students who were studying abroad during and shortly after WWII, chose to return home because many witnessed the corruption, mismanagement of the National Government during the war, and because of the propaganda of left-leaning student bodies in various university campuses. In addition, with the strong encouragement from the US-China Association of Science and Technology, many students returned to China in 1949.
In September 1949, the ship “President of Cleveland” included more than 20 students, including Liang Sili/梁思礼 (Missile Expert), Chen Lisheng/陈利生and Yan Renyin/严仁英 (Gynecologist).
In November 1949, the “General Gordon” had Ge Tingxuan/葛庭燧 (Solid State Physicist), Lu Xingxuan/ 陆星垣 (Sericulture Scientist) and many other Chinese students.
In January 1950, there were 18 Chinese students, including Tang Yuqing/唐敖庆 (Theoretical Chemistry) and Chen Yanting/陈椿庭 (Water Conservancy), on the “General Gordon“.
In March 1950, the “President of Cleveland” included dozens of Chinese students such as Hua Luoxuan/华罗庚 (Mathematician), Zhu Guangya/朱光亚 (Nuclear Physicist) and Wang Xiji/王希季 (Satellite and Return Technology Expert).
In the spring of 1950, “President Wilson” had Yan Dongsheng/严东生 (Material Scientist) and many other Chinese students.
In June 1950, there were 34 Chinese students, including Luo Peixuan/罗沛霖 (Electronics and Information Scientist), on the “President of Cleveland“.
The “President Wilson” of August 31, 1950, was a ship with more stories on its way home from the early 1950s. The ship had the largest number of students, with 128 students including Deng Jiaxian/邓稼先 (Nuclear physicist, accused of being an CIA agent and badly beaten in the Culture Revolution), and Qing Jin/钱晋 (Applied Chemistry, accursed as CIA agent, and beaten to death in 1970).
In September 1950, the “President of Cleveland” included more than 90 Chinese students, such as Yu Chaocheng/冀朝铸 (Diplomat), Wang Zeng zhuang/王曾壮 (Agricultural Economy), Zhang Yuanyi/张元一 and Zhang Qingnian/张庆年(English).
In February 1951, Yan Mingxuan/颜鸣皋 (Material Scientist), Liu Huixia/刘恢先(Structural and Earthquake Engineering)（Hong Jin/洪晶）and other more than 100 students took “President Wilson” to come home.
In April 1951, there were Xu Guangxin/徐光宪 (Physical Chemist) and Gao Xiaoxia/高小霞 (Analytical Chemistry) on the “General Gordon“.
Eight Chinese students, including Xie Jialin/谢家麟 (Accelerator Physicist), Dong Yanzen/董彦曾 (Song Yu/宋娟娟), Sun Yishi/孙以实, Fang Lin/方琳, Zhang Quan/张权and others on the “President of Cleveland“, who set off on September 20, 1951, were immersed in the joy of returning home; but the ban issued on October 9th reached them. When their ship arrived in Hawaii, US Immigration officials and FBI agents boarded the ship, spoke to the eight men, and presented official judicial documents to them. Then, the eight Chinese students were then escorted off the ship and soon sent back to San Francisco.
From prohibiting return of Chinese students to allowing permanent residence/U.S. Refugee Relief Act of 1953
After the breakout of the Korean War, the US government decided to ban Chinese students majoring in science, engineering, and medicine （STEM）from returning home.
On October 9, 1951, the Immigration and Naturalization Service of the US Department of Justice started explicitly prohibiting Chinese students from leaving the country. They began to present formal judicial documents to those Chinese students in science, engineering, and medicine (STEM) when they applied to return China: “It is not in the interest of the United States to leave the United States under section 225 of the Law adopted on May 22, 1918, and Circular 2523 issued by the President of the United States. So, we order you not to leave or attempt to leave the United States. Failure to do so would result in a fine of not more than five years’ imprisonment or not more than $5,000, or both”.
On August 7, 1953, President Eisenhower signed the Refugee Relief Act of 1953, which allowed at least some (no more than 2,000) Chinese students to remain in the United States and convert their student status to permanent residents. This was also the first time in the history that the study abroad Chinese students were allowed to stay and work in the United States.3
In November 1954, Chinese students sent an open letter to UN Secretary-General Hammarskjöld, and 30 people including Zhang Xingqian/张兴钤，Zhang Bin/张斌, Chen Rongrong/陈荣耀, Zhou Jian/周坚and Yu Jun/虞俊 signed the letter。11,12
In addition, Chinese students studying in the United States have asked Menon, the Indian ambassador to the United Nations, for help, as well as their American friends. Yu Jun/虞俊 once wrote a letter to Professor Einstein, hoping to get his help, but Professor Einstein said in his reply that he was already suspected of being a Communist Party, so it was inconvenient to speak for Chinese students studying in the United States.
The Second Wave of Return of Chinese Students (1954-1955)
In October 1951, the US government’s ban of Chinese students in STEM fields from returning home made those who planned to go back to China increasingly anxious. They realized that they needed to explore other possibilities. They decided to write to the Chinese government and let the government know their situation in the US as soon as possible. On May 3, 1953, Li Hengde/李恒德 (Nuclear Material Scientist), Zhou Shouxian/周寿宪 (Computer Scientist, accused of being an CIA agent, suicided in 1976) and 15 others signed a letter to Premier Zhou. On December 21, 1953, Li Hengde/李恒德 sent another letter, signed by 15 people from Philadelphia, Boston and Chicago, to Premier Zhou. 11,12
At the same time, Chinese students, to win sympathy from the American public, wrote two open letters to US President Dwight D. Eisenhower to reveal the detention of Chinese students by the US and ask the US to revoke the order restricting the Chinese students from leaving the US. The first open letter, written by Liang Xiaotian/梁晓天 (Organic Chemist), was drafted in March 1954. By August 5, they had collected 26 signatures; The open letter was sent to the president, members of Congress from 48 states, and newspapers. Eisenhower later admitted at a press conference that the United States had detained Chinese students. To put further pressure on the US government, Chinese students in the Midwest wrote a second open letter to President Eisenhower on September 2 of that year. The letter was drafted by Wong Zu Wei/王祖耆（Electric Engineering）of Northwestern University, and signed by nine people, including Mr. and Mrs. He/ 何炳林 (Polymer Chemist) and Mr. and Mrs. Chiao/焦瑞身 (Microbiologist). 11,12
The publication of the first open letter to the President of the United States, attracted widespread media attention in the States. Many influential media outlets, such as the Boston Globe and The Christian Science Monitor, interviewed Chinese students who signed the open letter and published reports on front pages that the Chinese students could not return home because of the US government’s ban. In November 1954, Chinese students sent another open letter to the Secretary-General of the United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld of Sweden, with signatures of 30 people, including Zhang Xingxuan/张兴钤 (Metal Physicist), Zhang Bin/张斌, Chen Glorious/陈荣耀, Zhou Jian/周坚 and Yu Jun/张斌. In addition, they sought help from India’s ambassador to the United Nations, Mr. V. K. Krishna Menon，and from other American friends. Yu Jun//张斌 wrote a letter to Professor Einstein in the hope of getting his help, but Professor Einstein replied that he had been suspected of being a Communist and was therefore not in a position to speak for Chinese students in the United States. 11,12
US-China Geneva Negotiations (1954-1955)
On June 5, 1954, the head of the Chinese delegation, Wang Yannan/王炳南（China Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs）, and the head of the United States delegation, U. Alexis Johnson (United States Ambassador to Japan and former Czechoslovakia) held their first talks. 5 On June 10th, in the second round of talks, China and the United States failed to reach a consensus on the number of Chinese detained by the United States. The US side acknowledged that only 120 people who had applied to return home were denied. During the meeting, the two sides reached a consensus on the POWs of American pilots in the Korean War.
On June 21, 1954, Johnson and Wang met again. When Johnson handed over a list of 15 Chinese students who could leave the country under US law, Wang asked for a list of all 120. Johnson replied to the list of approved people would not be submitted to the Chinese government until the US government approved it. Later, the United States Citizen and Immigration Services (USCIS) investigation revealed that 57 of the 120 detained Chinese students wanted to return to China. The US Government decided to grant them departure permits, approved in batches of 10-15 persons. The third group of persons allowed to return was announced in April 1955, with a total of 76 persons.
On April 4, 1955, the US government officially revoked the order banning Chinese students from returning home. On September 10, 1955, China announced the release of 12 American pilots.
List of Some Chinese Students returned for the Second Wave
In October 1954, Liang Xiaotian/梁晓天 (Organic Chemistry), Song Zhenyu/ 宋振玉 (Metabolism Researcher) and Fan Xinxuan/范新弼 (Computer Scientist), returned home on a sea ship bound for Kowloon/Hong Kong from the United States. This was the first time a Chinese student returned home by ship since the Geneva negotiations began. 10
On November 29, 1954, the USS Wilson, bound for Hong Kong from the United States, became the second ship for Chinese students to return home after the lifting of the ban. The ship was home to more than a dozen Chinese students, including Wang Wenxuan/汪闻韶 (Water Conservancy), Li Hengde/李恒德, Liu Youcheng/刘有成 (Free Radical Chemistry), Luo Huiyuan/罗会元 (MD, PhD in Virology), Jiang Xixuan/蒋锡夔 (Organic Chemistry) and Xu Wei/许葆玖夫妇 (Civil Engineering). 10
At the beginning of April 1955, Huang Wei/黄葆同 (Polymer Chemistry) returned home by boat with his wife, 冯之榴 (Polymer Physicist), Wang Re/王仁 (Geodynamicist), Zhang Jiaxuan/张家桦, Lu Jiahong/吕家鸿 (Lieutenant Colonel, Isotope Scientist, persecuted and died in 1967), Xie Xinzheng/谢心正, Shen Xinli/沈心立, Luo Zhen huang/骆振黄 (Nautical Physics), Guo Mingda/郭明达 (Dancer) and Cai Junlu/蔡君陆. 10
At the beginning of May 1955, a group of Chinese students, including Mr. and Mrs. Chen Glorious/ 陈荣耀 (Sha Yixian/沙逸仙), Mr. and Mrs. Wang Mingzhen/王明贞 (Radar Researcher, prosecuted and served 5 years and 8 months in prison without any formal chargers in 1968) (Yu Qizhong/俞启忠), Mr. and Mrs. Xu Yiben/徐璋本 (Anti-Missile Scientist) and Lu Yupu/陆裕朴 (Orthopedics), returned by boat from San Francisco. 10
In June 1955, more than 20 Chinese students, such as Yan Da/匡达人(Medicine) and son, Tong Shibai/童诗白(Electronics Scientist) (Zheng Min/郑敏) couple, Qian Ning/钱宁, JS Chiao/焦瑞身(Microbiologist) (Guan Yingqian/关颖谦(Plant Physiology ) and son, Zhang Xingxuan/张兴钤(Physical Metallurgy), Shi Changxu/师昌绪 (Material Scientist), Lin Zhengxian/林正仙 (Petrochemical Process Researcher), Du Lianyao/杜连耀(Radio Physics), Zhou Tonghui/周同慧(Pharmacist), Liu Chengjin/刘铸晋(Organic Chemistry) boarded the President Cleveland from San Francisco，Hawaii, and arrived in Hong Kong in July 1955, 10
In early July 1955, Mr. Xie/谢家麟 (Accelerator Physicist) arrived in Hong Kong on the “President Wilson” after sailing for more than 20 days. 10
On September 15, 1955, the Cleveland President, sailing from San Francisco, had the largest number of international students in the second wave of return. Mr. and Mrs. Qian Xuesen/钱学森 (Missile Scientist) (Jiang Ying/蒋英 (Musician), Mr. and Mrs. Li Zhengwu/李正武 (Nuclear Physicist) (Sun Xiang/孙湘), Mr. and Mrs. Xu Guozhi/许国志 (Mechanic Engineering) (Jiang Lijin/蒋丽金 (Chemist), Mr. and Mrs. Wang Zuxuan /王祖耆 (Electric Engineering) (Shen Xuejun/沈学均), Mr. and Mrs. He Guozhu/何国柱 (Nuclear Physicist) (Liu Yuhui/刘豫麒), Mr. and Mrs. Hong Yulin/ 洪用林 (Zhang Feihui/张发慧), Mr. and Mrs. Hu Yuxian/胡聿贤(Earthquake Engineering)(Dai Yuehui/戴月棣), Mr. and Mrs. Xiaolun/肖伦(Radiochemistry)(Xiao Yuchun/萧蓉春), Chen Yuzhao/陈炳兆(Physical Metallurgy), Xu Shunsheng/许顺生, Zhang Songgui/疏松桂(Automation Scientist), Lu Xiaoxuan/陆孝颐(Hydrologist), Zhang Shixuan/张士铎(Bridge Engineering), Feng Qide/冯启德, Liu Erxiong/刘尔雄, Liu Yusheng/刘骊生(Molecular Biologist), as well as Qian Xuesen/钱学森, Li Zhengwu/李正武, He Guozhu何国柱/, Hu Yuxian/胡聿贤’s six children a total of 30. 10
On November 25, 1955, Chen Eng-kwan/陈能宽 (Metal Physicist), He Yulin/ 何炳林 (High Polymer Chemistry) (Chen Zhuyu/陈茹玉 (Synthetic Pesticide Chemist)) and their two sons, Li Yinyuan/李荫远 (Solid State Physicist), Hu Zhiheng/胡日恒 (Low Temperature Thermochemistry) and Zheng Linsheng/郑林生 (Experimental Physics) returned home on the President Wilson. 10
In February 1956, Huang Maoguang/黄茂光 (Solid Mechanics) and Hou Yuxuan/侯虞钧 (Chemical engineer) returned home. 10
In September, Mr. and Mrs. Zhang Wenyu/张文裕 (High Energy Physicist) (Wang Chengshing/王承书 (Theoretical Physicist) and Mr. and Mrs. Guo Yonghuai/郭永怀 (Nuclear Scientist) (Li Pe/李佩 (English)) returned home on the “President Cleveland“. 10
In January 1957, Lin Lanying/林兰英 (Semiconductor Materials Scientist) returned home on the “President Wilson”; In February, Xie/谢毓章 (Liquid Crystal Physics) returned home. 10
From November 1954 to January 1957, 150-220 students returned to China.
Lives After Return
Almost all the returned students made considerable contributions to China re-construction between the mid-1950s and first ten years of the 21st century.
- Some worked hard in laying the foundation of basic sciences and engineering including earthquake/petroleum oil field detection, and creation of water conservancy dams.
- Some applied basic research to agriculture to grow rice year-round.
- Some worked tirelessly delivering babies in Hospitals.
- Some converted basic research to life-saving medicines and treating cancers.
- Some helped establish modern military capabilities such as missiles and nuclear bombs.
- Some contributed a great deal in satellite development.
- Some taught English or Dance in colleges
- Some worked building new generation of electronic components for new computers
On the other hand, unfortunately, many were never trusted by the CCP. Some of them were punished in the Anti-Rightist-Campaign in 1956 for speaking out their opinions. Many of them were accused of being CIA or MI6 agents in the Culture Revolution and lost freedom in those darkest days of China’s modern history, between 1966 – 1976, among them at least 8 committed suicide. 13
Once the Culture Revolution ended in 1976, many of them showed their unconditional love for the country by forgiving CCP and started to work hard to recoup the lost times. Some continued working even in their eighties.
Now all of them have fulfilled their dream of building China and left this world, but their unwavering patriotism will live forever with their motherland.
References：
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